Philippine Electoral System

The electoral system is a crucial component of any democratic governance. In the Philippines, elections serve as the primary mechanism through which citizens exercise their sovereignty by choosing leaders and representatives. The country's electoral system has evolved over time, shaped by its historical experiences, colonial legacies, and democratic aspirations. This discussion provides an overview of the Philippine electoral system, tracing its historical timeline and exploring the theoretical frameworks that underpin its development.

Historical Timeline of the Philippine Electoral System

Pre-Hispanic Period

Before Spanish colonization, the Philippines did not have an electoral system in the modern sense. Governance was decentralized and organized around local leaders such as datus, rajahs, or sultans, who held authority through kinship, personal influence, and the support of their communities. Leadership was often hereditary or decided by the consensus of elders.

Spanish Colonial Period (1565-1898)

Under Spanish rule, a limited form of local elections was introduced but was tightly controlled by colonial authorities. Elections for local officials such as gobernadorcillos and members of the principalia (local elite) existed, though only the Spanish elite and principalia could vote. Indigenous Filipinos were excluded, and the system was far from democratic, heavily influenced by the Church and colonial government.

American Period (1898-1946)

After the Philippines was ceded to the United States, a more formal electoral system was introduced. This period saw the expansion of suffrage and the establishment of democratic institutions, though suffrage was still limited based on property, education, and gender until reforms gradually expanded voter inclusion:

  • 1907: The first Philippine Assembly was elected, marking the beginning of national elections.
  • 1935: The Commonwealth of the Philippines adopted a democratic system with a bicameral legislature, and women gained the right to vote in 1937.

Post-Independence (1946-Present)

After independence in 1946, the Philippines retained the democratic electoral system from the Commonwealth period. However, challenges such as electoral fraud, vote-buying, and political violence persisted, particularly during the 1960s and 1970s. During the Martial Law era (1972-1986), Ferdinand Marcos severely compromised the electoral system, manipulating elections to maintain power. The 1986 snap elections led to the People Power Revolution, which ousted Marcos and restored democracy.

Post-EDSA Period (1986-Present)

The 1987 Constitution restored democratic institutions and established the Commission on Elections (COMELEC) as an independent body to oversee elections. Reforms included measures to prevent electoral abuses, leading to milestones such as:

  • 1992: The first peaceful transfer of power under the 1987 Constitution.
  • 2010: The introduction of automated elections, significantly reducing electoral fraud.

Theoretical Frameworks in the Philippine Electoral System

1. Liberal Democratic Theory

Liberal democracy emphasizes individual rights, political pluralism, and popular sovereignty. In the Philippines, elections are seen as a mechanism for citizens to exercise power and hold leaders accountable, aligning with the country's constitutional guarantees of universal suffrage and regular elections.

Scenario: The Philippines has experienced numerous peaceful transfers of power, exemplified by the 1992 elections, which saw Fidel V. Ramos elected president, affirming democratic processes after the long period of authoritarian rule under Marcos.

2. Institutionalism

This theory focuses on the role of institutions in shaping political behavior. In the Philippines, COMELEC is a pivotal institution, enforcing electoral laws, regulating campaign spending, and ensuring the integrity of elections. The shift to automated elections in 2010 is an example of how institutional reforms can enhance electoral transparency and efficiency.

Scenario: The introduction of Precinct Count Optical Scan (PCOS) machines in 2010 helped curb election fraud like "dagdag-bawas" (vote-padding and shaving) and increased public confidence in the election process.

3. Patronage and Clientelism

Despite democratic ideals, the Philippines continues to struggle with patronage politics, where politicians provide material benefits to voters in exchange for support. This leads to vote-buying, weak political parties, and the persistence of political dynasties, especially in local elections.

Scenario: In many provinces, political clans maintain control by distributing favors and engaging in vote-buying, undermining the democratic choice of the electorate.

4. Structural-Functionalism

This framework views elections as fulfilling crucial functions in maintaining social order and political stability. Elections are a means of resolving political conflicts peacefully and ensuring the orderly transition of power. However, in the Philippine context, elections have been a double-edged sword, sometimes inciting political conflict while also offering a mechanism for change.

Scenario: The 1986 People Power Revolution is a prime example of how electoral manipulation can lead to mass unrest, but also how elections can catalyze peaceful transitions, as seen in the restoration of democracy after the ouster of Ferdinand Marcos.

Electoral Process: From Candidates to Voting

1. Candidate Selection and Qualification

Candidates must file their certificate of candidacy with COMELEC, and must meet the minimum age, citizenship, and residency requirements. Political parties endorse candidates, though independent candidates may also run. The party-list system, introduced in the 1987 Constitution, provides proportional representation for marginalized sectors like laborers, farmers, and indigenous peoples.

2. Voter Registration and Education

Voter registration is a prerequisite for voting. COMELEC also conducts voter education campaigns, often in cooperation with civil society groups, to inform citizens of their rights and responsibilities.

3. Election Day: Voting and Counting

On Election Day, voters cast their ballots in precincts. Since 2010, automation has significantly improved the accuracy and speed of vote counting, reducing opportunities for fraud.

Scenario: Before automation, the manual counting process was vulnerable to fraud, leading to delays and irregularities, especially during the highly contested 2004 elections.

4. Post-Election: Canvassing and Proclamation

Election results are canvassed at the municipal, provincial, and national levels. Winners are proclaimed once the canvassing is complete, with national elections often requiring the oversight of Congress.

5. Election Disputes

Disputes over electoral results are handled by specialized electoral tribunals such as the Presidential Electoral Tribunal (PET), Senate Electoral Tribunal (SET), and House of Representatives Electoral Tribunal (HRET).

 

Voting Process of Voters in the Philippines

1. Voter Registration

Before citizens can vote, they must register with the Commission on Elections (COMELEC). The registration process involves the following steps:

  • Eligibility: The voter must be at least 18 years old on Election Day, a Filipino citizen, and a resident of the Philippines for at least one year, and in their local precinct for at least six months.
  • Registration Period: COMELEC opens registration several months before elections to ensure all eligible voters have the opportunity to register.
  • Biometric Data Collection: Voters provide their biometric information, such as fingerprints, photographs, and signatures, to prevent fraud and duplication.

Once registered, voters receive a voter’s ID or confirmation that their registration is complete, allowing them to participate in the upcoming elections.

2. Voting Process on Election Day

Election Day is declared a holiday in the Philippines, ensuring citizens can cast their votes without work obligations.

  • Precinct Assignment: Registered voters are assigned to specific precincts based on their residence. The voter list is provided at each precinct to ensure only eligible voters can vote.
  • Identification and Verification: Voters are required to present identification, and their names are checked against the official voters’ list.
  • Ballot and Voting:
    • Voters are given a ballot on which they mark their choices for national and local positions (e.g., President, Vice President, Senators, Congressmen, Governors, Mayors, etc.).
    • The voter marks the ballot by shading ovals next to their chosen candidate's names.
    • The ballot is then fed into a Precinct Count Optical Scan (PCOS) machine or Vote Counting Machine (VCM). This system automates the vote counting process, minimizing the risks of human error and electoral fraud.
  • Assistance for Special Cases: Voters with disabilities or the elderly may receive assistance in casting their ballots. Special precincts may be established for these groups, ensuring that the voting process is accessible to all.
  • Secrecy of the Vote: Voting is done in private to ensure the secrecy of the voter's choices.

3. Vote Counting and Results

  • PCOS Machine: Once voting ends, the PCOS or VCM tallies the votes cast at the precinct level.
  • Transmission of Results: The machine electronically transmits the results to the municipal, provincial, and national canvassing boards, which aggregate the votes.
  • Canvassing: Canvassing boards at various levels (local, provincial, national) confirm and consolidate results.
  • Proclamation: Once the votes are fully canvassed, the winners are proclaimed. In presidential and vice-presidential elections, Congress serves as the final canvassing board.

Examples and Historical Evidences

  1. The 1986 Snap Elections and the People Power Revolution The 1986 snap presidential election between Ferdinand Marcos and Corazon Aquino became a pivotal moment in Philippine history. Amid widespread allegations of fraud, the election triggered the People Power Revolution, leading to Marcos' ouster and the restoration of democratic governance. This event highlights the importance of electoral integrity in political transitions.
  2. The 1992 Presidential Election The first presidential election under the 1987 Constitution, the 1992 election, saw Fidel V. Ramos elected with a narrow plurality. This election marked the first peaceful transition of power after decades of authoritarian rule, demonstrating the resilience of democratic processes.
  3. The 2010 Automated Elections The 2010 automated elections were a landmark in improving the credibility of the electoral process. By reducing opportunities for fraud and expediting vote counting, automation restored public trust in elections after years of controversy surrounding manual counts.

Institutional Framework: Key Bodies in the Philippine Electoral System

1. Commission on Elections (COMELEC)

COMELEC is responsible for overseeing elections, enforcing election laws, accrediting political parties, and regulating campaign spending. It also manages voter registration and conducts electoral education programs.

2. Judiciary and Electoral Tribunals

The judiciary, through bodies like the Presidential Electoral Tribunal (PET), Senate Electoral Tribunal (SET), and House of Representatives Electoral Tribunal (HRET), resolves electoral disputes and ensures legal compliance.

3. Political Parties

Political parties in the Philippines often revolve around personalities rather than ideologies. The system is marked by weak party structures and the dominance of political dynasties, which continue to control local politics.

The Party System in the Philippines

The Philippine political system features both traditional political parties and the party-list system.

1. Traditional Party System

Philippine politics has historically been dominated by two main types of political parties:

  • Major Political Parties: The two-party system dominated in the early post-independence period, but today there are several major parties, such as Liberal Party, PDP-Laban, Nacionalista Party, Lakas-CMD, and Nationalist People’s Coalition (NPC). These parties usually support candidates for the presidency, governorship, and other major positions.
    • Weak Party Structures: Many political parties in the Philippines are characterized by weak ideologies. Political parties are often built around prominent individuals or families, rather than strong political ideologies.
    • Shifting Loyalties: Politicians frequently switch party affiliations, especially during elections, leading to a fluid political landscape.

2. The Party-List System

The party-list system, established under the 1987 Constitution, aims to provide representation for marginalized and underrepresented sectors in the House of Representatives. Key features include:

  • Proportional Representation: Under this system, a certain percentage of seats in the House of Representatives is reserved for party-list representatives. These seats are allocated based on the percentage of votes a party-list group receives, encouraging broader representation for groups such as laborers, farmers, women, indigenous peoples, and others.
  • Qualification and Registration: Party-list groups must register with COMELEC, which assesses their qualification to represent marginalized sectors.
  • Voting for Party-List Representatives: On Election Day, voters cast a separate vote for a party-list group. These groups receive seats based on the proportion of the national vote they secure, but a party-list group can hold no more than three seats in Congress, regardless of their share of the vote.

3. Issues in the Party System

Despite reforms like the party-list system, several challenges remain in the Philippine political party system:

  • Political Dynasties: Political families often dominate parties, especially in local elections. This limits political competition and perpetuates patronage politics.
  • Weak Party Ideologies: Political parties often lack clear ideological distinctions, with candidates switching parties for political convenience rather than ideological alignment.
  • Clientelism and Patronage: The practice of patronage politics, where voters support a party or politician in exchange for personal benefits, is prevalent. This undermines the development of strong political parties and policies based on public service.

Conclusion

The Philippine electoral system has undergone profound changes, evolving from its colonial foundations to a more modern democratic framework. Theoretical perspectives such as liberalism, institutionalism, and structural-functionalism help explain this evolution, offering insights into both its successes and enduring challenges. Notably, reforms such as the expansion of suffrage, the establishment of COMELEC, and the introduction of automated elections have enhanced transparency and accountability. However, persistent issues like patronage politics, vote-buying, and the entrenchment of political dynasties continue to undermine the democratic ideals the system aspires to uphold.

Historical milestones, such as the 1986 snap elections that led to the People Power Revolution and the 2010 introduction of automated elections, underscore the critical role of electoral integrity in political transitions and the strengthening of democracy. These events highlight how reforms can mitigate fraud, expedite vote counting, and promote public trust in the electoral process.

While the integration of the party-list system offers a pathway for marginalized sectors to gain representation, the persistence of weak party ideologies and clientelist practices reflects the ongoing tension between democratic aspirations and political realities. The interplay between traditional party politics and the party-list system continues to shape electoral outcomes, often favoring political elites over broad-based participation.

In conclusion, the Philippine electoral system represents both progress and persistent challenges. Continuous reforms, such as further strengthening the party system, combating patronage politics, and increasing voter education, coupled with active citizen engagement, are essential for enhancing the quality and inclusiveness of Philippine democracy. Only through sustained efforts can the country move closer to realizing the full potential of its electoral system and democratic institutions.